Given the erasure of women generally in antiquity and the broad-brush misogyny in many sources, it is difficult to reconstruct ancient views towards female subjectivity, female desire, and toward a category we might call “Lesbianism.” The contemporary concept of sexuality depends on a strict categorization of sexual and personal desire such as heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, and vice versa. However, in ancient Greece and Rome, these words did not exist and the concepts they embodied are not like our contemporary interpretation of sexuality. Perspectives towards sexuality, especially homosexuality, in current history have colored the perception through which people understand the nature of sexuality in ancient Greece and Rome. However, applying modern labels to sexual identities and practices will provide an insufficient examination of the existed sexual identities during that time – especially for women. To understand same-sex desire and relationships in ancient Greece and Rome, this paper will use the term “homoeroticism”. Going further, to better understand female homoeroticism, social structure regarding gender and available sources need to be analyzed.
When examining ancient Greek notions regarding homoeroticism, people are certainly going to find various narratives of male homoeroticism. However, not much is known about female homoeroticism or female sexuality overall. The only common and familiar source of female homoeroticism from ancient Greece seems primarily to be Sappho. Her writings are extremely limited, even being argued between scholars regarding sexuality. It is known female homoeroticism and queer relations occurred during ancient Greece, yet there is limited acknowledgement and documentation during this time. This is due to Ancient Greece being a patriarchal society which neglected women, therefore, women’s lives were not realistically documented. Thus, female homoeroticism in Ancient Greece was misunderstood and unaccounted for; this can be seen through the large social focus on male sexuality, invisibility of female sexuality, and hetero-norming of female same-sex relationships.
Ancient Greece was not an equal society and Ancient Greek sexuality was modeled on its social hierarchy: “citizen male to females, prostitutes of both sexes, slave males, younger males, and those men alleged to prefer the passive [sexual] role” (Skinner, 7). Sexuality was based on penetration regarding the use of citizen men’s bodies while social inferiority was analogous to their obtainability as sexual objects. Male homoeroticism in antiquity was widely accepted; based on the penetration model, the value of men’s general dominance and celebration of their sexuality was evident. However, it was only accepted on the grounds of pederasty which involved an older citizen man, erastes, and younger citizen boy, eromenos. This relationship was in the form of mentorship which older men took younger men or boys in to be mentored in preparation for manhood. Sexually, the erastes played the penetrative role while the eromenos played a passive one. However, interestingly, outside of these bounds, it is socially unacceptable for citizen men to play a passive role which was “abandoning moderation, he behaves in a womanish manner” (Skinner, 18). This demonstrates the form of misogynistic undertones regarding the view of women – they were considered as people who were not capable of controlling their indulgences.
Also, if sexuality was based on penetration, and female same-sex intercourse does not require penetration, then there are two possibilities: men did not care because it did not involve penetration or men were uncomfortable with the idea. There have been many arguments regarding Greek views towards female homoeroticism and many cite Alcman and Sappho. Many cite Alcman who wrote maiden songs which encompassed passionate and/or admiration of the female chorus leaders in the words of the female chorus. There are specific lines in Alcman 1 which may allude to this, “Nor once at Aenesimbrota’s will you say:/Oh that Astaphis be mine,/May Philylla look over/And Damareta and desired Ianthemis/But Hagesichora overwhelms me”. This can be interpreted as the choir girls sing their desire for the other girls is surpassed by their desire and love for Hagesichora. However, this can be interpreted as Hagesichora exhausting them with a very long performance. Whether this has any erotic significance, some posited that choir was part of institutions like pederasty for boys which trained them for adult responsibilities. Therefore it “imparted an understanding of marriage, sex, and motherhood” – all part of a woman’s function in Greek society (Skinner, 86). Therefore, in theory, female homoeroticism seemed to be a good thing because it was a transitional period to prepare girls for marital intimacy.
This perspective fits well with how people interpreted Sappho, the only female poet in classical Greece who wrote about female homoerotic desire. Since she was considered the tenth muse by Plato, it could be that her desire was not perceived as problematic. Her sexuality is not considered a problem until the Roman period when she is portrayed as a tribas, or woman playing a man’s role (Skinner, 328). Some have claimed that she ran a school for women and the homoeroticism had a ritual function to teach them how to behave appropriately once they are married – the same concept in Alcman’s poetry. However, in Sappho 1, 31, 94, and 96, there is no evidence indicating that the women she mentions are younger or pertained to a group which she led. There are indications of sexual desire in Sappho 94: “…with pure, sweet oil….you annointed me,/And on a soft, gentle bed…You quenched your desire”. However, there is a profound desire for romantic reciprocation expressed in Sappho 1: “’Again whom I must persuade back into the harness of your love?/Sappho, who wrongs you?/For if she flees, soon she’ll pursue”. Aphrodite is asking Sappho who she needs to persuade to reciprocate her love and assures her that the woman will return. This is not common in the Greek institution of pederasty; therefore, it is difficult to conclude that Sappho was truly a school mistress which utilized female homoeroticism as a transitional period to prepare girls for marital intimacy. However, female homoeroticism is clearly present in her work; the fact that she is the only female poet during this time and the only one who expressed female homoeroticism demonstrates the lack of acknowledgement and importance it had in Greek society.
Regardless, female sexuality throughout Ancient Greece was largely invisible; men experienced sexual freedom while women were mostly confined to benefiting the city, or polis, and bearing children. Marriage was viewed as the only form of institution which women could express their sexuality because it was the best way to ensure descendance and inheritance which were essential for the polis. This can be seen in Archilochus’ “Encounter in a Meadow” when he wrote about Neboule, “her girlhood’s flower has shed its petals, lost/all the enchantment it had. /She never got enough… I pray no friend of mine/would have me marry somebody like her” (Archilochus). Although Archilochus wrote this because Lycambes, her father, reneged the marriage, this demonstrates that women who lost their virginity before marriage and lack sexual constraint are not ideal for marriage. Also, “for Greek society in general, reproduction was the primary objective of marriage” (Skinner, 172). Also, there is proof of Athenian fear about women combining wine and sex leading to infidelity in Thesmophoriazusae which is about women criticizing Euripedes for making their husbands suspicious of them. There were no such fears regarding men, because the literature of this time was predominantly written by men. This proves male-centered sexual liberty and the suppression and denial of women’s sexual desires, exploration, and liberty outside the confines of marriage. However, if women’s “deviant” sexual behavior was based on premarital or adulterous sex which threatened the polis, and female homoeroticism did not affect reproduction, then there is a possibility that it was permissible up until the Hellenistic period.
The silence on the topic of female homoeroticism broke during the Hellenistic period leading to an opposition against it. This can be seen in poems which attempt to heterosexualize Sappho, depicting her as “man crazy” who fell in love with a man named Phaon, and gave birth to a daughter. She was also depicted as having committed suicide due to being rejected by Phaon and was accused of being “undisciplined” and a “lover of women”; all the while, people such as Plato and Asclepiades branded female homoeroticism as unnatural (Skinner, 242). Since female homoeroticism was outside the bounds of the penetration model and consequently ignored, it became a problem for men. Herodas took an offensive stance against female homoeroticism, singling out Nossis, a woman who described women visiting Aphrodite’s temple in a book of epigrams. Nossis writes positive depictions, although not overtly erotic, but can be considered suggestive of Sappho therefore perceiving it to be homoerotic: “Let us go to Aphrodite’s temple to see her statue,/how finely it is embellished with gold./Polyarchis dedicated it, having made a great fortune/out of the splendor of her own body” (Anth. Pal. 9.332). Therefore, Herodas attacked Nossis in Mimiambos: “I do not think that I would give her [i.e., Nossis] one [of my dildos],/– if I complain more than is just, may Vengeance overlook it – Not if I had a thousand, not even if it were rotten” (Mimiambos 6.74-79). It is believed that during the Hellenistic period, Ancient Greece became very influenced by Rome and its cultural assumptions (Skinner, 246). Therefore, to better understand the change in perception regarding female homoeroticism, Ancient Rome’s view regarding the topic must be analyzed.
Roman views towards homoeroticism were similar yet different compared to the Greeks. Male homoeroticism was based on the traditional view of masculinity and femininity. It was commonly accepted among the citizens if they were in a dominant or penetrative role like Greek notions. Men who took on the feminine or penetrated role were slaves, prostitutes, etc. This demonstrates the misogynistic and patriarchal undertones within society treating women as a socially lesser status. Regarding female homoeroticism, there is less evidence in Roman literature regarding the topic which can be perceived to be reflecting a form of decorum; they were viewed as inappropriate. Roman poet Ovid’s attitude insinuated this, writing in book 9 of Metamorphoses, “cows never yearn for cows, nor mares for mares…A female never fires a female’s love” (Iphis and Ianthe p. 222). This same tale from which this derives from begins with Telethusa’s husband threatening to kill their unborn child if it turns out she was a female. Due to this, she conceals the sex of her child when she is born and gives her the ambiguous name “Iphis” and dresses her as a boy. Iphis is then married to Ianthe, a golden-haired girl. At first, their relationship is described romantically, “and so it was that both their simple hearts/Love visited alike and both alike/Were smitten” (Iphis and Ianthe p. 221). The poem ends with Iphis being extremely terrified which Isis, a goddess, interfered and transformed her into a man – “She who had been/A girl a moment past was not a boy./Rejoice, rejoice, with fearless faith!” (Iphis and Ianthe p. 224). This tale is a clear demonstration of the attitudes towards female homoeroticism which led to the tale’s transition to fit the heteronormative institution of marriage which can be understood in a male-centric understanding of sex and relationships via masculinization and dismissiveness. In other words, it was heterosexualized. Female homoeroticism was considered inappropriate and less important compared to the hetero-norm.
In conclusion, the contemporary concept of sexuality depends on a strict categorization of sexual and personal desire such as heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality, and vice versa. However, in ancient Greece and Rome, these words did not exist and the concepts they embodied are not like our contemporary interpretation of sexuality. Perspectives towards sexuality, especially homosexuality, in current history have colored the perception through which people understand the nature of sexuality in ancient Greece and Rome. However, applying modern labels to sexual identities and practices will provide an insufficient examination of the existed sexual identities during that time – especially for women. Female homoeroticism in Ancient Greece seemed to have been dismissed and ignored until the Hellenistic period. During this time, Ancient Greece became influenced by Ancient Rome, a very patriarchal society which did not believe that female homoeroticism could be possible. This could be due to the deep fear of women’s sexual autonomy and lack of self-control – or fragile masculinity.
References
Aristophanes, , and Alan H. Sommerstein. Thesmophoriazusae. Warminster, Wiltshire, England: Aris & Phillips, 1994. Print.
Skinner, Marilyn B. Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture. Wiley Blackwell, 2014.
Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D. Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
Herodas, , Parthenius, González J. L. Navarro, Antonio Melero, and Parthenius. Mimiambos. Madrid: Gredos, 1981. Print.
From An Afro-dominican Woman's Point of View 